Antonio Gramscis Theory of Hegemony

Antonio Gramscis Theory of Hegemony Hegemony is the processes by which dominant culture maintains its dominant position: for example, the use of institutions to formalize power; the employment of a bureaucracy to make power seem abstract (and, therefore, not attached to any one individual); the inculcation of the populace in the ideals of the hegomonic group through education, advertising, publication, etc.; the mobilization of a police force as well as military personnel to subdue opposition. In international relations, there is a consolidated tradition that associates hegemony and world order. Nevertheless, the relation between the two variables, their interpretation, and the direction of the causal link between them, is still a matter of scholarly debate. The definition of hegemony and an empire has been hotly debated over the past few decades. Some believe hegemony is a tactic to avoid the word empire and the negative connotations that are associated with it. Others believe that a hegemony is a more technical, well thought out form of an empire. Some believe it is a lesser form of imperialism. Although one thing that is not disputed is the fact that hegemony very well is a form of dominance over a smaller, weaker nation, and no matter what one may call it, or how it may be approached, dominance will continue to flourish through the ages. Referring to the organization of the international system after the Second World War, Kindleberger argued that stensibly, the system was organized by rules and international institutions. In reality, it was led by the United States In this essay, Antonio Gramscis hegemony approach will be deeply analysed and examined and also compared and contrasted with the others approaches. GRAMSCIS THEORY OF HEGEMONY In order to understand Gramsci and the concept of hegemony, one has to look briefly at the work of Karl Marx. Marxism viewed everything in life as determined by capital. (Williams, R. 1977) The flow of money affects our relations with other people and the world surrounding us. Marx stated that everything around us, our activities and way of life is determined by economic content. According to Marxism, men find themselves born in a process independent of their will, they cannot control it, they can seek only to understand it and guide their actions accordingly. (Williams, R. 1977) The class struggle was an important part of Marxism. Marxism stated that society can only be understood in terms of a system where the dominant ideas are formulated by the ruling class to secure its control over the working class. (Williams, R. 1977) Due to exploitation, the working class will eventually try and change this situation through revolution producing its own ideas as well as its own industrial and political organization. Marxs work is highly influenced by economic reasoning. He divides this economic reasoning into two levels, being the base and superstructure. The base is composed by the material production, money, objects, the relations of production and the stage of development of productive forces. (Williams, R. 1977) The superstructure is where we find the political and ideological institutions, our social relations, set of ideas; our cultures, hopes, dreams and spirit. (Williams, R. 1977) Both the base and superstructure are shaped by capital. While one could say that Marx was primarily concerned with the base and economic issues, Gramscis work seeks to focus on the superstructure and ideologies. For Gramsci, the class struggle must always involve ideas and ideologies. These ideas would lead to a revolution and to change. Gramsci tried to build a theory which recognized the autonomy, independence and importance of culture and ideology. (Ransome, P. 1992) Gramsci took the superstructure a step further when he divided it into institutions that were coercive and those that were not. The coercive ones, were basically the public institutions such as the government, police, armed forces and the legal system which he regarded as the state or political society and the non-coercive ones were the others such as the churches, the schools, trade unions, political parties, cultural associations, clubs and family, which he regarded as civil society. (Boggs, C. 1976) So for Gramsci, society was made up of the relations of production as w ell as the state or political society and civil society. Gramsci accepted the analysis of capitalism put forward by Marx and accepted that the struggle between the ruling class and the subordinate working class was the driving force that moved society forward. (Boggs, C. 1976) Gramsci did not agree with the notion put forward by Marx that the ruling class stayed in power solely because they had economic power. He thus introduced his own concept using ideology. Ideology is the shared ideas or beliefs which serve to justify the interests of dominant groups. (Boggs, C. 1976) Gramsci felt that ideological power kept the ruling class in power because it allowed them to brainwash and manipulate the rest of society. Ideology is the cohesive force which binds people together. Ideology, like hegemony must not only express the class interests of the capitalist or working class. Gramsci insists that ideology has a material nature in the social lives of individuals, as ideologies are embedded in communal modes of living and acting. (R. Simon, 1992) This means that ideologies are embodied in the social practices of individuals and in the institutions and organizations within which these social practices take place. Ideology provides people with the rules of practical conduct and moral behavior. Ideological power stems from norms or shared understandings of how people should act morally in their relations with each other. (R. Simon, 1992) Those who monopolize ideological power have authority over others. Subordinate groups tend to accept the ideas and values of the dominant group without physical or mental influence because they know no better or there are not other alternatives. (Ransome, P. 1992) From Gramscis view, the bourgeoisie gained and maintained power due to economic domination and intellectual and moral leadership. Here, Gramsci introduced a new concept which he called hegemony. Hegemony is a set of ideas by means of which dominant groups strive to secure the consent of subordinate groups to their leadership. (Ransome, P. 1992) It occurs when dominant classes in society maintain their dominance persuading the other classes of society to accept their moral, political and cultural values. This means that the majority in a population give consent to policies and ideologies implemented by those in power. One must not assume that this consent is always willing. Those in power may combine physical force or coercion with intellectual, moral and cultural persuasion. (Ransome, P. 1 992) The dominant ideology is thus accepted, practiced and spread. Hegemony emerges out of social and class struggles and serves to shape and influence people. According to Gramsci, hegemony never disappears but is constantly changed. He describes two forms of social control. The first type is coercive control which is achieved through the use of direct force or threat of force. (Simon, R. 1992) The second type is consensual control which arises when individuals voluntarily adopt the worldview of the dominant group. (Simon, R. 1992) Gramsci says that within civil society, the dominant group exercises hegemony which is intellectual domination over the subordinate group or consensual control, whereas in political society, domination is exercised through state or juridical government or coercive control. (Gramsci, A. 1971) These functions are very much interlinked in the sense that intellectual domination is usually preceded by political domination. Social hegemony and political government are enforced historically in which the dominant group enjoys its position because of its function in the world of production and legally by state coercive power which enforces discipline on groups that do not consent. (Gramsci, A. 1971) This gives rise to a division of labor or specialization and to a whole hierarchy of qualifications. Gramsci stated that the only way the working class can achieve hegemony is if it takes into account the interests of other groups and social forces and finds ways of combining them with its own interests. (Ransome, P. 1992) In other words, the working class will need to build alliances with social minorities, taking into account their struggles against the capital class, thus strengthening the position of the working class. The labour process was at the center of the class struggle but it was the ideological struggle that had to be addressed if the mass of the people were to come to a realization that allowed them to question their political and economic rulers right to rule. Hegemony is exercised in civil society which is a tangle of class struggles and democratic struggles. (Simon, R. 1992) Hegemony in civil society must achieve leadership in the sphere of production taken up by the bourgeoisie, controlling the productive process and achieving state power. Those who have economic power have a strong link to political power and vice versa. Those who monopolize control over economic production, distribution, exchange and consumption is the dominant class which has the most power. A change in hegemony may occur when the dominant class begins to break up, creating an opportunity for the subordinate classes to merge and build up a movement capable of challenging the weakened dominant class and achieving hegemony. But, if this opportunity is not taken, then the dominant class has the opportunity to reorganize new alliances and reestablish hegemony. Hegemony goes beyond culture which is the whole social process in which people define and shape their lives. It is bases in ideology which is a system of meanings and values that expresses a particular class interest. (Simon, R. 1992) In order to create a class strong enough to have hegemony, one has to first instill a solid ideology based on specific interests that will dominate the rest of society, using the influence of capitalist relations. Gramsci felt that in order to have hegemony, ideologies have to be instilled by certain people or leaders. Gramsci identified intellectuals as leaders in society. He identified two types of intellectuals. The first is traditional intellectuals who are people that regard themselves as independent of the dominant social group and are regarded as such by the majority of the population. (Gramsci, A. 1971) The second type is the organic intellectual. This is the group that grows organically with the ruling class, and is their thinking and organizing element. (Gramsci, A. 1971) They were produced by the educational system to perform a function for the dominant social group in society. It is through this group that the ruling class maintains its hegemony over the rest of society.

Description of Jail Essay

A description of jail’s place in corrections and its role throughout history A summary of the history of state and federal prisons A comparison of the similarities and differences between security levels in jails, state prisons, and federal prisons An explanation of factors influencing growth in jails, state prisons, and federal prisons Jails have been present within the criminal justice system for as long as you can probably date back. Jails play a vital role in the correction system. When jails originated they were used to serve the sole purpose of keeping an individual confined. In the beginning the jails and their conditions were inhumane and very harsh. Jails were not they type of place that individuals would like to be and often times people feared the possibility of having to go to jail. There are many reasons why people feared going to jail and one of the main reasons were because of the conditions that present in jail. There were many times where the inmates were not fed and they hygienic conditions were poor. As time progressed factors about jails changed. Jails were no longer only used to house criminals but they were also used to rehabilitate the criminal and allow them to opportunity change enough to be released safely into society. As time progressed jails begin to add programs that allow them to advance and further themselves. It is now possible to obtain a high school diploma while being incarcerated in jail. There are now programs that help aid drug addicts and alcoholics recover from their addictions before they are released. There are also programs that allow inmates to obtain a trade degree that they can use once they are released back into society. You made a lot of valid points within your post. I use to always wonder why exactly criminals committed the crimes that they did, like what possessed them to do those type of things? I wonder now if criminals weigh crime and punishment why would they feel as of the reward that they will gain from committing a crime is worth their life and their freedom most of the time. Maybe these thoughts vary from person to person meaning what I may not think will be worth the punishment that will be received from a crime but others may not agree with my thought process.

Effective Communication Essay

Effective communication is an important process in everyday life. Communication is a continuous process of exchanging verbal and non-verbal messages. Listening and hearing are two very different concepts. Hearing is the act of perceiving sound by the ear. While listening is something you consciously choose to do. Formal and informal channels of communication flow upward, downward and horizontal. Barriers to effective communication alter or distort the message being sent. Emotions and physical limitations greatly impact the messages being delivered or how the recipient receives the message. Effective communication is an important aspect within the criminal justice field. Effective Communication Effective communication is an important process in everyday life. While communicating an individual gives nonverbal cues as well as verbal cues. Both are very important to the communicating process. Listening and hearing are two very different concepts. Listening constitutes and understanding of the information received. Information flows upward, downward and horizontally. Within the flow of communication there are formal and informal channels, especially in the criminal justice field. Within the communication process there can be many barriers to inhibit the use of effective communication. The four main barriers to communication are emotional barriers, physical barriers, semantic barriers and ineffective listening. Overcoming these barriers is important to the criminal justice field. Verbal and Nonverbal Communication Communication is a continuous process of exchanging verbal and non-verbal messages. While communicating we must be aware of our verbal, nonverbal and para-verbal messages (Wallace, 2009). Verbal messages are words. Nonverbal messages are the body language presented when the words are spoken. Para-verbal messages are the tone, pitch and pacing of the voice. It is important that all three correspond with one another. If you are saying yes and shaking your head no, that gives a confusing and inconsistent message to the recipient. In all of our communications we want to strive to send consistent verbal, para-verbal and nonverbal messages. When our messages are inconsistent, the recipient may become confused. Thus, the recipient may not understand the message completely and provide poor feedback to the sender. Becoming an effective sender and recipient is important. Understanding the messages received and providing proper feedback is essential. Listening and Hearing Hearing is the act of perceiving sound by the ear. If you are not hearing-impaired, hearing simply happens. Listening, however, is something you consciously choose to do. Listening requires concentration so that your brain processes meaning from words and sentences. â€Å"The difference between the sense of hearing and the skill of listening is attention† (Horowitz, 2012) Listening is an essential part of the communication process. If the receiver is not listening to the message being sent and only hearing it, the information is not being processed and proper feedback cannot be returned. Therefore, the sender does not know if the receiver understands the message being delivered. Formal and Informal Channels Communication flows downward, upward or horizontal (Wallace, 2009). The most common flow of communication is downward, from supervisors to subordinates. In the criminal justice system downward communication is classified into three categories; orders, procedures and personnel information. Upward communication is information provided to supervisors from subordinates. It is also classified into three categories; performance communication, information and clarification. Horizontal communication is the flow of information between personnel at the same levels. It is also classified into three categories; coordination, social issues and problem solving. Formal and informal channels of communication flow upward, downward and horizontal. â€Å"The formal channels are the strict procedures defined by the policies of the organization. The informal channels consist of the undocumented sharing of information† (Sinclair, n. . ). Formal channels of communication are strict rules of communication within the department, such as reports, evidence custody, policies and procedures. Informal channels of communication are the sharing of information between officers. â€Å"The most common informal channel of communication is the ‘grapevine’ (Sinclair, n. d. ). A good example of the downward flow of communication, using formal and informal channels, is a police department’s shift meeting. During the meeting the oncoming shift is briefed by the supervisor on developments and procedures. This is a mix of formal and informal communication. The department’s SOPs and procedures are discussed and conversations between officers on issues are discussed. This flow of communication is very important to the department. Oncoming officers need to know what has happened prior to their shift in order to continue with the ongoing duties, for example BOLO’s on suspects, and other crimes happening in the area. Information on goings-on in the department’s area of operation is essential for each officer to do their job effectively. Information must flow freely throughout the criminal justice system; from the highest ranking person to the lowest. Barriers to Effective Communication â€Å"Barriers are influencing factors which impede or breakdown the continuous communications loop. They block, distort or alter the information† (Wallace, 2009). The four main barriers to communication are emotional barriers, physical barriers, semantic barriers and ineffective listening (Wallace, 2009). Emotional barriers reside in either the sender or receiver of information. People base their receiving or transmitting of information off of their personal experiences or knowledge. Emotional barriers can stem from low self-esteem, depression and psychological problems. Physical barriers are things in the environment that make the transfer of communication difficult. Physical barriers include malfunctioning equipment, outside noise and distance between the sender and receiver. Any obstacle that slows or impedes the free flow of information is a physical barrier (Wallace, 2009). Semantic barriers refer to the inability to agree on the meaning of certain terms, thus resulting in poor communication (Wallace, 2009). People understand messages differently. A simple vague statement can mean a plethora of things to different people. Ineffective listening is the failure to hear or understand what the sender is transmitting (Wallace, 2009). Numerous reasons exist for ineffective listening. The receiver may be disinterested or bored with the topic. The topic may be too complex or too simple for the recipient. The recipient may also be consumed by personal problems, therefore unattached to the discussion. One of the main barriers those in the criminal justice field face is language. The US is a melting pot of cultures. Not everyone effectively speaks and understands the English language. It is important for those working within the criminal justice field to understand this and work towards mending the barrier. Whether mending it means learning a second language or making sure there are interpreters on hand, it is important to understand and be understood. It is also very important to be an effective listener. Criminal justice employees should not let emotion become a barrier when communicating with each other or citizens of the public. Conclusion Effective communication is an important process in everyday life. While communicating an individual gives nonverbal cues as well as verbal cues. Both are very important to the communicating process. Listening and hearing are two very different concepts. Listening constitutes and understanding of the information received. Information flows upward, downward and horizontally. Within the flow of communication there are formal and informal channels, especially in the criminal justice field. Within the communication process there can be many barriers to inhibit the use of effective communication. The four main barriers to communication are emotional barriers, physical barriers, semantic barriers and ineffective listening. Overcoming these barriers is important to the criminal justice field.

Epstein s Framework Of Six Types Of Involvement - 858 Words

Epstein’s Framework of Six Types of Involvement include: parenting, communicating, volunteering, learning at home, decision making, and collaborating with the community. As a responsible leader, the district leader should engage in professional practice by ensuring that all six types of involvement are included in each of the school’s improvement plan, and that everyone will work together as a team to promote positive change concerning our parental involvement strengths and weaknesses. ISLLC standard 4, states that the school administrator should collaborate with families and community members and use community resources. In order to do this, everyone on the team must be open to diversity and innovation, to create and improve the strategies to get the parents and the community involved and feel welcome in our school. All of these, if done with the students in mind, the parental involvement should improve. The goal and objectives included in my school improvement pl an deals with parental involvement. I like the way Joyce Epstein breaks down the different types of involvement. Each type of involvement includes sample practices, challenges that may occur, redefinitions of words, and results for the students, parents, and teachers. As a teacher, and one day a district leader, I believe that getting parents involved will increase student achievement; however, each individual school and the district, we have to provide ways for the families to become involved. The firstShow MoreRelatedParental Involvement And Academic Achievement1710 Words   |  7 Pages Parental Involvement and Academic Achievement: When does a child become affected by the lack of parental involvement in their lives? Some people may say when the child is older, and can fully understand what’s happening. 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